{"id":15411,"date":"2018-10-11T13:08:28","date_gmt":"2018-10-11T11:08:28","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/npolar.no\/?page_id=15411"},"modified":"2025-06-25T13:46:17","modified_gmt":"2025-06-25T11:46:17","slug":"climate-processes-and-drivers","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/npolar.no\/en\/themes\/climate-processes-and-drivers\/","title":{"rendered":"Climate: processes and drivers"},"content":{"rendered":"\n<section  class='av_textblock_section av-11g8p33-5fe9412bfea35cb4156e4606e3197218 '   itemscope=\"itemscope\" itemtype=\"https:\/\/schema.org\/CreativeWork\" ><div class='avia_textblock'  itemprop=\"text\" ><section class=\"paragraph clearfix\">\n<h2 class=\"heading--section-title\">Global processes<\/h2>\n<\/section>\n<\/div><\/section>\n\n<style type=\"text\/css\" data-created_by=\"avia_inline_auto\" id=\"style-css-av-z6q0xr-9d7967c4ce708a2d1286597296df45b4\">\n.flex_column.av-z6q0xr-9d7967c4ce708a2d1286597296df45b4{\nborder-radius:0px 0px 0px 0px;\npadding:0px 0px 0px 0px;\n}\n<\/style>\n<div  class='flex_column av-z6q0xr-9d7967c4ce708a2d1286597296df45b4 av_one_half  avia-builder-el-2  el_after_av_textblock  el_before_av_one_half  first flex_column_div av-zero-column-padding  column-top-margin'     ><section  class='av_textblock_section av-y6nstr-85c537b16e1fa2f14afcc9b443b690b2 '   itemscope=\"itemscope\" itemtype=\"https:\/\/schema.org\/CreativeWork\" ><div class='avia_textblock'  itemprop=\"text\" ><p>The energy that radiates from the sun creates the basis for weather and climate on earth. The radiation absorbed makes the earth warmer. Unless an equal amount of energy is lost to outer space, the temperature on earth would increase.<\/p>\n<p>Earth loses energy to space by radiating infrared light from the surface and the atmosphere. Averaged over the entire globe, the earth loses the same amount of energy in the form of infrared radiation as it takes up from the sun.<\/p>\n<\/div><\/section><\/div>\n\n<style type=\"text\/css\" data-created_by=\"avia_inline_auto\" id=\"style-css-av-39yscv-098c4fd0f9e9249284abc48bf1bd0422\">\n.flex_column.av-39yscv-098c4fd0f9e9249284abc48bf1bd0422{\nborder-radius:0px 0px 0px 0px;\npadding:0px 0px 0px 0px;\n}\n<\/style>\n<div  class='flex_column av-39yscv-098c4fd0f9e9249284abc48bf1bd0422 av_one_half  avia-builder-el-4  el_after_av_one_half  el_before_av_textblock  flex_column_div av-zero-column-padding  column-top-margin'     ><section class=\"av_textblock_section\"  itemscope=\"itemscope\" itemtype=\"https:\/\/schema.org\/CreativeWork\" ><div role='complementary' class='avia_textblock NP-factsheet-enfold no '   itemprop=\"text\" ><p class='title'>Radiation<\/p><div class='hsep'><\/div><div class='NP-factsheet-content'><br \/>\nAll surfaces radiate energy, often in the form of light. How much and what type of light (infrared, visible, ultraviolet) depends on the surface\u2019s temperature. Surfaces with temperatures common on earth radiate infrared light, whereas the sun is hot enough to radiate visible and ultraviolet light. The warmer the surface, the greater the radiation.<br \/>\n<\/div><\/div><div tabindex=\"0\" role=\"button\" class=\"NP-factToggle\" style=\"text-align:center;\"><i class=\"fas fa-angle-down fa-2x\"><\/i><\/div><\/section><\/div>\n<section  class='av_textblock_section av-t3q5hr-6707a23dee693d58af9acfaeb49650ed '   itemscope=\"itemscope\" itemtype=\"https:\/\/schema.org\/CreativeWork\" ><div class='avia_textblock'  itemprop=\"text\" ><section class=\"paragraph clearfix\">\n<figure class=\"media pull-right\">\n<p><div id=\"attachment_2250\" style=\"width: 810px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-2250\" class=\"wp-image-2250 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/npolar.no\/wp-content\/uploads\/albedo-sea.jpg\" alt=\"Figur som viser albedoeffekten p\u00e5 hav.\" width=\"800\" height=\"800\" srcset=\"https:\/\/npolar.no\/wp-content\/uploads\/albedo-sea.jpg 800w, https:\/\/npolar.no\/wp-content\/uploads\/albedo-sea-450x450.jpg 450w, https:\/\/npolar.no\/wp-content\/uploads\/albedo-sea-100x100.jpg 100w, https:\/\/npolar.no\/wp-content\/uploads\/albedo-sea-80x80.jpg 80w, https:\/\/npolar.no\/wp-content\/uploads\/albedo-sea-300x300.jpg 300w, https:\/\/npolar.no\/wp-content\/uploads\/albedo-sea-768x768.jpg 768w, https:\/\/npolar.no\/wp-content\/uploads\/albedo-sea-36x36.jpg 36w, https:\/\/npolar.no\/wp-content\/uploads\/albedo-sea-180x180.jpg 180w, https:\/\/npolar.no\/wp-content\/uploads\/albedo-sea-705x705.jpg 705w, https:\/\/npolar.no\/wp-content\/uploads\/albedo-sea-32x32.jpg 32w, https:\/\/npolar.no\/wp-content\/uploads\/albedo-sea-50x50.jpg 50w, https:\/\/npolar.no\/wp-content\/uploads\/albedo-sea-64x64.jpg 64w, https:\/\/npolar.no\/wp-content\/uploads\/albedo-sea-96x96.jpg 96w, https:\/\/npolar.no\/wp-content\/uploads\/albedo-sea-128x128.jpg 128w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\" \/><p id=\"caption-attachment-2250\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Albedo effect at sea. A light surface (snow and ice) reflects almost 80% of the incoming energy back to the atmosphere, whereas the dark ocean absorbs heat and reflects only about 10%. Illustration: Audun Igesund \/ Norwegian Polar Institute<\/p><\/div><figcaption class=\"media__caption caption highslide-caption\">\n<p class=\"caption__text\">&nbsp;<\/p>\n<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/section>\n<\/div><\/section>\n<div  class='togglecontainer av-qrf68f-036e71e5084ebf6f562c7847438daa0b av-minimal-toggle toggle_close_all' >\n<section class='av_toggle_section av-av_toggle-3eac5f74f268765ae666fa7a93112f65'  itemscope=\"itemscope\" itemtype=\"https:\/\/schema.org\/CreativeWork\" ><div role=\"tablist\" class=\"single_toggle\" data-tags=\"{All} \"  ><p id='toggle-toggle-id-1' data-fake-id='#toggle-id-1' class='toggler  av-title-above '  itemprop=\"headline\"  role='tab' tabindex='0' aria-controls='toggle-id-1' data-slide-speed=\"200\" data-title=\"Greenhouse gases\" data-title-open=\"\" data-aria_collapsed=\"Click to expand: Greenhouse gases\" data-aria_expanded=\"Click to collapse: Greenhouse gases\">Greenhouse gases<span class=\"toggle_icon\"><span class=\"vert_icon\"><\/span><span class=\"hor_icon\"><\/span><\/span><\/p><div id='toggle-id-1' aria-labelledby='toggle-toggle-id-1' role='region' class='toggle_wrap  av-title-above'  ><div class='toggle_content invers-color '  itemprop=\"text\" ><p>For celestial bodies without an atmosphere, such as the moon or Mercury, it is easy to calculate surface temperature based simply on their distance from the sun, their size and how much sunlight they reflect. If the same formula is applied to the earth, the calculated average surface temperature is about \u201117\u00b0C. However, the gases in the atmosphere take up much of the infrared radiation emitted from the surface of the earth, which means that the atmosphere grows warmer. The warm atmosphere subsequently emits infrared radiation both out toward space and back to the surface. The infrared light emitted down toward earth warms the surface. This process is called the greenhouse effect, and explains why the earth has an average temperature closer to +14\u00b0C than to \u201117\u00b0C. Water vapour is the most important greenhouse gas, followed by carbon dioxide (CO<sub>2<\/sub>) and methane (CH<sub>4<\/sub>).<\/p>\n<p>Climate can change as a result of natural processes or human activities. The most important process behind the ongoing climate change is an increased concentration of CO<sub>2<\/sub> and other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, which enhance the greenhouse effect. The latest IPCC report summarising available knowledge and evidence shows that the concentration of CO<sub>2<\/sub> in the atmosphere has increased by about 40% since the beginning of the industrial revolution. There are clear indications that human activities have caused this increase. The current atmospheric concentration of CO<sub>2<\/sub> is far higher than any level attained through natural variation over the past 800&nbsp;000 years, as demonstrated by ice cores, and it is quite certain that the increase in atmospheric CO<sub>2<\/sub> levels seen in the last 100 years has been more rapid than any other increase over the last 22 000 years.&nbsp;Read more about the&nbsp;<a href=\"http:\/\/www.miljostatus.no\/Tema\/Klima\/Drivhuseffekten\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">greenhouse effect and changing concentrations of greenhouse gases<\/a>&nbsp;at milj\u00f8status.no.<\/p>\n<section class=\"av_textblock_section\"  itemscope=\"itemscope\" itemtype=\"https:\/\/schema.org\/CreativeWork\" ><div role='complementary' class='avia_textblock NP-factsheet-enfold alwaysToggle '   itemprop=\"text\" ><p class='title'>Greenhouse gases and rising temperature<\/p><div class='hsep'><\/div><div class='NP-factsheet-content'><br \/>\nFundamental principles of physics decree that an increase in the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere will lead to higher temperatures on the earth\u2019s surface. The same physical principle can be used to estimate how much the temperature will increase. That is what Svante Arrhenius did way back at the end of the 19th century. He wrote: \u201cOn the other hand, any doubling of the percentage of carbon dioxide in the air would raise the temperature of the earth\u2019s surface by 4\u00b0.\u201d[<em>V\u00e4rldarnas utveckling<\/em>, 1906]<\/p>\n<p>Modern researchers use climate models that include far more processes and&nbsp;<span class=\"explain-enabled\" data-hoverbox=\"&lt;strong&gt;Feedback mechanisms&lt;\/strong&gt; are changes in the climate system caused by global warming, which will then themselves affect global temperature. Feedback can be positive (warming) or negative (cooling). Much of the uncertainty related to climate change is associated with feedback mechanisms.\" data-hasqtip=\"7\">feedback mechanisms<\/span>&nbsp;than Arrhenius could take into consideration. These models reveal more details concerning where temperatures will rise, how much they will rise, and how factors such as precipitation and sea ice will be affected. Nonetheless, the give essentially the same answer to the question of how much the average temperature will increase at a doubled concentration of CO<sub>2<\/sub>: the current estimate is 3.2\u00b0C.<\/p>\n<p><\/div><\/div><div tabindex=\"0\" role=\"button\" class=\"NP-factToggle\" style=\"text-align:center;\"><i class=\"fas fa-angle-down fa-2x\"><\/i><\/div><\/section>\n<\/div><\/div><\/div><\/section>\n<section class='av_toggle_section av-mcbw24me-4d74220011e0e91083cd1f42e2483198'  itemscope=\"itemscope\" itemtype=\"https:\/\/schema.org\/CreativeWork\" ><div role=\"tablist\" class=\"single_toggle\" data-tags=\"{All} \"  ><p id='toggle-toggle-id-2' data-fake-id='#toggle-id-2' class='toggler  av-title-above '  itemprop=\"headline\"  role='tab' tabindex='0' aria-controls='toggle-id-2' data-slide-speed=\"200\" data-title=\"Aerosols\" data-title-open=\"\" data-aria_collapsed=\"Click to expand: Aerosols\" data-aria_expanded=\"Click to collapse: Aerosols\">Aerosols<span class=\"toggle_icon\"><span class=\"vert_icon\"><\/span><span class=\"hor_icon\"><\/span><\/span><\/p><div id='toggle-id-2' aria-labelledby='toggle-toggle-id-2' role='region' class='toggle_wrap  av-title-above'  ><div class='toggle_content invers-color '  itemprop=\"text\" ><p>Aerosols (tiny particles of soot or sulphates) in the atmosphere can have a cooling effect owing to their ability to refract and absorb incoming solar radiation. The aerosols can also have an indirect effect: they function as condensation nuclei and contribute to formation of clouds. Increased cloud cover increases the earth\u2019s ability to reflect sunlight and thus cools the earth. However, soot in aerosol form also has a warming effect.&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>Human activities release many aerosols. <span class='NP-tooltip  '\n    data-tippy='<strong>IPCC<\/strong><em>&nbsp;<\/em>(The United Nations\u2019 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change), has the task of compiling the best available expert knowledge about climate change. The IPCC reports are considered the most important basis for international climate politics.Read more about&nbsp;<a href=\"file:\/\/\/C:\/Users\/janne\/Documents\/NPolar\/NPolar\/www.npolar.no\/en\/themes\/climate\/climate-change\/processes-drivers\/_http_\/www.ipcc.ch\/_.html\" target=\"_self\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">IPCC<\/a>'\n    data-tippy-arrow='true'\n    data-tippy-delay='[null,400]'\n    data-tippy-interactive='true'\n    data-tippy-trigger='mouseenter focus click'\n    >The IPCC<sup class='NP-tooltipmark'>?<\/sup><\/span> estimates that overall, man-made aerosols have a cooling effect; in other words, aerosols have lessened the warming we would otherwise have experienced from the increased concentrations of greenhouse gases.<\/p>\n<\/div><\/div><\/div><\/section>\n<section class='av_toggle_section av-av_toggle-95941b7279d30de89f86c3e35a15fa58'  itemscope=\"itemscope\" itemtype=\"https:\/\/schema.org\/CreativeWork\" ><div role=\"tablist\" class=\"single_toggle\" data-tags=\"{All} \"  ><p id='toggle-toggle-id-3' data-fake-id='#toggle-id-3' class='toggler  av-title-above '  itemprop=\"headline\"  role='tab' tabindex='0' aria-controls='toggle-id-3' data-slide-speed=\"200\" data-title=\"The earth\u2019s orbit around the sun\" data-title-open=\"\" data-aria_collapsed=\"Click to expand: The earth\u2019s orbit around the sun\" data-aria_expanded=\"Click to collapse: The earth\u2019s orbit around the sun\">The earth\u2019s orbit around the sun<span class=\"toggle_icon\"><span class=\"vert_icon\"><\/span><span class=\"hor_icon\"><\/span><\/span><\/p><div id='toggle-id-3' aria-labelledby='toggle-toggle-id-3' role='region' class='toggle_wrap  av-title-above'  ><div class='toggle_content invers-color '  itemprop=\"text\" ><p>Many other natural processes also influence climate. These processes have led to major climate changes in the past. In the past few million years, the earth has experienced several ice ages, when ice sheets like those that now cover Greenland and Antarctica covered large parts of North America and Europe. These changes were mainly caused by gradual changes in the earth\u2019s orbit around the sun.<\/p>\n<\/div><\/div><\/div><\/section>\n<section class='av_toggle_section av-av_toggle-46892a282151191e1734c2d7313ad9d9'  itemscope=\"itemscope\" itemtype=\"https:\/\/schema.org\/CreativeWork\" ><div role=\"tablist\" class=\"single_toggle\" data-tags=\"{All} \"  ><p id='toggle-toggle-id-4' data-fake-id='#toggle-id-4' class='toggler  av-title-above '  itemprop=\"headline\"  role='tab' tabindex='0' aria-controls='toggle-id-4' data-slide-speed=\"200\" data-title=\"Solar radiation\" data-title-open=\"\" data-aria_collapsed=\"Click to expand: Solar radiation\" data-aria_expanded=\"Click to collapse: Solar radiation\">Solar radiation<span class=\"toggle_icon\"><span class=\"vert_icon\"><\/span><span class=\"hor_icon\"><\/span><\/span><\/p><div id='toggle-id-4' aria-labelledby='toggle-toggle-id-4' role='region' class='toggle_wrap  av-title-above'  ><div class='toggle_content invers-color '  itemprop=\"text\" ><p>Solar radiation varies over an 11-year cycle, and also over longer time scales. The latest IPCC summary of available knowledge and evidence shows that changes in solar radiation have probably contributed very little to the overall changes in climate since the beginning of the industrial era.<sup>&nbsp;<\/sup>A few studies show that changes in solar radiation may have contributed to increased global average temperatures during the first half of the 20th century, but have probably played a very minor role in the last half of the century.<\/p>\n<\/div><\/div><\/div><\/section>\n<section class='av_toggle_section av-av_toggle-85e69fbdd553786c71f8e0c178cd00ee'  itemscope=\"itemscope\" itemtype=\"https:\/\/schema.org\/CreativeWork\" ><div role=\"tablist\" class=\"single_toggle\" data-tags=\"{All} \"  ><p id='toggle-toggle-id-5' data-fake-id='#toggle-id-5' class='toggler  av-title-above '  itemprop=\"headline\"  role='tab' tabindex='0' aria-controls='toggle-id-5' data-slide-speed=\"200\" data-title=\"Global ocean circulation and atmospheric circulation\" data-title-open=\"\" data-aria_collapsed=\"Click to expand: Global ocean circulation and atmospheric circulation\" data-aria_expanded=\"Click to collapse: Global ocean circulation and atmospheric circulation\">Global ocean circulation and atmospheric circulation<span class=\"toggle_icon\"><span class=\"vert_icon\"><\/span><span class=\"hor_icon\"><\/span><\/span><\/p><div id='toggle-id-5' aria-labelledby='toggle-toggle-id-5' role='region' class='toggle_wrap  av-title-above'  ><div class='toggle_content invers-color '  itemprop=\"text\" ><p>The global climate system is also regulated by the energy balance in the oceans and the atmosphere. Global ocean circulation and atmospheric circulation are driven by forces that strive to even out differences in temperature between high and low latitudes. Heat exchange between ocean and atmosphere is an important factor in regional climate patterns. Conditions that influence this balance \u2013 such as changes in air and sea temperatures, or cloud and sea ice cover \u2013 will thus influence how the climate evolves. On a geological time scale, changes in the shape and location of continents can have strong effects on circulation and heat balance and thus also on global climate. However, given that the continents have been in approximately the same place for the past 500 000 years, this is not a factor of any importance for ongoing climate change.<\/p>\n<p>On geological time scales, the concentrations of greenhouse gases \u2013 especially CO<sub>2<\/sub>&nbsp;\u2013 change through natural processes. Volcanos emit CO<sub>2<\/sub>&nbsp;to the atmosphere. This release is balanced by processes that capture CO<sub>2<\/sub>&nbsp;in the seabed, and it can be demonstrated in several ways that the increase in atmospheric CO<sub>2<\/sub>&nbsp;levels since the industrial revolution has been caused by human activities.<\/p>\n<\/div><\/div><\/div><\/section>\n<\/div>\n<section  class='av_textblock_section av-ff9vwf-d23273342702aa598398d30720152a3e '   itemscope=\"itemscope\" itemtype=\"https:\/\/schema.org\/CreativeWork\" ><div class='avia_textblock'  itemprop=\"text\" ><h2 class=\"heading--section-title\">Processes at the poles<\/h2>\n<p>Distinctly polar processes in both north and south, on land (snow, glaciers, and permafrost) and at sea (sea ice, ocean circulation,&nbsp;<span class=\"explain-enabled\" data-hoverbox=\"&lt;strong&gt;Deep water formation&lt;\/strong&gt; occurs when cold, heavy surface water sinks to the depths of the ocean. This creates a&nbsp;\u201dvacuum\u201d at the surface, pulling in other water to replace the water that has sunk to the depths.\" data-hasqtip=\"17\">bottom water formation<\/span>) ), play a crucial role in the global climate system, acting through complex interactions and&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class=\"explain-enabled\" data-hoverbox=\"&lt;strong&gt;Feedback mechanisms&lt;\/strong&gt; are changes in the climate system caused by global warming, which will then themselves affect global temperature. Feedback can be positive (warming) or negative (cooling). Much of the uncertainty related to climate change is associated with feedback mechanisms.\" data-hasqtip=\"18\" aria-describedby=\"qtip-18\">feedback mechanisms<\/span>.<\/p>\n<\/div><\/section>\n<div  class='togglecontainer av-drmoin-74809cdfa388e5742d3db65a2cd7e880 av-minimal-toggle toggle_close_all' >\n<section class='av_toggle_section av-ldbhqjqj-f1a5da323d049352080afed5b64d407c'  itemscope=\"itemscope\" itemtype=\"https:\/\/schema.org\/CreativeWork\" ><div role=\"tablist\" class=\"single_toggle\" data-tags=\"{All} \"  ><p id='toggle-toggle-id-6' data-fake-id='#toggle-id-6' class='toggler  av-title-above '  itemprop=\"headline\"  role='tab' tabindex='0' aria-controls='toggle-id-6' data-slide-speed=\"200\" data-title=\"Sea ice\" data-title-open=\"\" data-aria_collapsed=\"Click to expand: Sea ice\" data-aria_expanded=\"Click to collapse: Sea ice\">Sea ice<span class=\"toggle_icon\"><span class=\"vert_icon\"><\/span><span class=\"hor_icon\"><\/span><\/span><\/p><div id='toggle-id-6' aria-labelledby='toggle-toggle-id-6' role='region' class='toggle_wrap  av-title-above'  ><div class='toggle_content invers-color '  itemprop=\"text\" ><p>Sea ice is an important factor in maintaining radiative balance in the global climate system through the&nbsp; <span class='NP-tooltip  '\n    data-tippy='<strong>Albedo&nbsp;<\/strong>is a measure of a surface\u2019s ability to reflect sunlight.'\n    data-tippy-arrow='true'\n    data-tippy-delay='[null,400]'\n    data-tippy-interactive='true'\n    data-tippy-trigger='mouseenter focus click'\n    >albedo effect<sup class='NP-tooltipmark'>?<\/sup><\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Snow-covered sea ice reflects about 80% of incoming solar radiation, in contrast to open seas, which absorb more than 90% of incoming solar radiation and reflect only 10% back to the atmosphere. Because of this, changes in the proportion of sea ice and open water have a strong impact on the climate in this region. Record low amounts of sea ice are now being observed repeatedly in Arctic, whereas the extent of sea ice around Antarctica is relatively stable or increasing slightly. Studies suggest that the changes in ice cover in the north over the past decades have contributed to warmer temperatures in the Arctic through much of the year. They also suggest that most of the recent temperature increase in the Arctic can be attributed to reduced sea ice coverage, which in turn influences the formation of sea ice. A study from 2010 concluded that the changes in Arctic sea ice extent in the past few years have had less impact on temperature trends outside the region, that is south of 60\u00b0N<\/p>\n<section class=\"av_textblock_section\"  itemscope=\"itemscope\" itemtype=\"https:\/\/schema.org\/CreativeWork\" ><div role='complementary' class='avia_textblock NP-factsheet-enfold alwaysToggle '   itemprop=\"text\" ><p class='title'>Effects of meltwater ponds on sea ice albedo<\/p><div class='hsep'><\/div><div class='NP-factsheet-content'><\/p>\n<p>Research and monitoring done by the Norwegian Polar Institute help improve our understanding of the role of ice in radiation balance. One important field of study is the effect of meltwater ponds on sea ice albedo.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox-content\">\n<p>Meltwater ponds on ice absorb two or three times more solar energy than exposed, thick sea ice. Research results from the Norwegian Polar Institute imply that meltwater ponds will have a growing impact on total ice melt in the Arctic in the future. Now that the thick multiyear ice is beginning to disappear and a larger proportion of the sea ice is first-year ice, meltwater ponds are more likely to form. One study showed that in July, meltwater ponds covered 77% of the ice, while about 20% of the total ice cover was multiyear ice.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p><\/div><\/div><div tabindex=\"0\" role=\"button\" class=\"NP-factToggle\" style=\"text-align:center;\"><i class=\"fas fa-angle-down fa-2x\"><\/i><\/div><\/section>\n<p>Altered ice dynamics and structure, combined with uptake of heat in ice-free seas help enhance the warming of the Arctic and the loss of sea ice. When the heat stored in this reservoir returns to the atmosphere in the autumn and winter, the warmth does not stay in the lower layers of the atmosphere, but rises to higher altitudes, where it influences Arctic wind systems, particularly air exchange between north and south. This is probably a contributing factor in the record low temperatures and record heavy snowfall in southern Europe, along with unusually high temperatures in the Arctic in the winter of 2009-2010.<\/p>\n<section class=\"av_textblock_section\"  itemscope=\"itemscope\" itemtype=\"https:\/\/schema.org\/CreativeWork\" ><div role='complementary' class='avia_textblock NP-factsheet-enfold alwaysToggle '   itemprop=\"text\" ><p class='title'>The Norwegian Polar Institute\u2019s research on sea ice<\/p><div class='hsep'><\/div><div class='NP-factsheet-content'><\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox-content\">\n<p>Research done by the Norwegian Polar Institute contributes toward increased knowledge about a unique climate indicator: sea ice in the Arctic. The Polar Institute studies the physical processes that determine how sea ice evolves in the Arctic.<\/p>\n<p>The project&nbsp;ICE-havis&nbsp;focuses on understanding processes that determine mass and energy exchange \u2013 both large-scale and small-scale \u2013 between atmosphere, snow, sea ice and ocean, thus increasing our knowledge about how these components interact and which processes control how sea ice evolves.<\/p>\n<p>This is achieved through extensive fieldwork in and around Svalbard, in the Barents Sea and in Fram Strait, and through model simulations using both simple and sophisticated models.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p><\/div><\/div><div tabindex=\"0\" role=\"button\" class=\"NP-factToggle\" style=\"text-align:center;\"><i class=\"fas fa-angle-down fa-2x\"><\/i><\/div><\/section>\n<p>At the poles, cold, dense water is formed, which flows along the depths of the oceans toward the equator; to compensate, other currents form and flow at the ocean surface toward the poles. This is the motor in the ocean circulation system, which in turn regulates global climate. New bottom water forms in only a few areas of the world\u2019s oceans. Global warming can perturb&nbsp;<span class=\"explain-enabled\" data-hoverbox=\"&lt;strong&gt;Deep water formation&lt;\/strong&gt; occurs when cold, heavy surface water sinks to the depths of the ocean. This creates a&nbsp;\u201dvacuum\u201d at the surface, pulling in other water to replace the water that has sunk to the depths.\" data-hasqtip=\"24\">bottom water formation<\/span> by warming the surface water and increasing the influx of fresh water, both of which decrease the density of the surface water. A considerable proportion of the fresh water in the Arctic Ocean leaves the Arctic with the East Greenland Current through Fram Strait and ends up in the Greenland and Labrador seas, where it can influence the crucial bottom water formation. The Norwegian Polar Institute has been&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href=\"https:\/\/mosj.no\/en\/indikator\/climate\/ocean\/the-transport-of-freshwater-through-the-fram-strait\/\">monitoring the fresh water current in Fram Strait<\/a>&nbsp;since 1997, through permanently deployed instruments and annual research cruises across the current. The Institute reports these monitoring results in&nbsp; <span class=\"explain-enabled\" data-hoverbox=\"&lt;strong&gt;MOSJ&lt;\/strong&gt;&nbsp;Environmental monotoring of Svalbard and Jan Mayen.\" data-hasqtip=\"25\">MOSJ<\/span>.<\/p>\n<\/div><\/div><\/div><\/section>\n<section class='av_toggle_section av-av_toggle-e66a70940fbb2f1ceafbaa31fa0f1060'  itemscope=\"itemscope\" itemtype=\"https:\/\/schema.org\/CreativeWork\" ><div role=\"tablist\" class=\"single_toggle\" data-tags=\"{All} \"  ><p id='toggle-toggle-id-7' data-fake-id='#toggle-id-7' class='toggler  av-title-above '  itemprop=\"headline\"  role='tab' tabindex='0' aria-controls='toggle-id-7' data-slide-speed=\"200\" data-title=\"Snow\" data-title-open=\"\" data-aria_collapsed=\"Click to expand: Snow\" data-aria_expanded=\"Click to collapse: Snow\">Snow<span class=\"toggle_icon\"><span class=\"vert_icon\"><\/span><span class=\"hor_icon\"><\/span><\/span><\/p><div id='toggle-id-7' aria-labelledby='toggle-toggle-id-7' role='region' class='toggle_wrap  av-title-above'  ><div class='toggle_content invers-color '  itemprop=\"text\" ><p>Snow cover, like sea ice cover, is an important factor in maintenance of radiation balance in the global climate system through the <span class='NP-tooltip  '\n    data-tippy='<strong>Albedo&nbsp;<\/strong>is a measure of a surface\u2019s ability to reflect sunlight.'\n    data-tippy-arrow='true'\n    data-tippy-delay='[null,400]'\n    data-tippy-interactive='true'\n    data-tippy-trigger='mouseenter focus click'\n    >albedo effect<sup class='NP-tooltipmark'>?<\/sup><\/span>. On average, about 46 million square kilometres of the earth\u2019s surface is covered with snow every year. But the total area of this snow cover is decreasing, and the period when there is snow cover is getting shorter.<\/p>\n<p>The latest IPPC report shows that over the last decades, the area covered by snow has decreased by about 1.6% per decade, and the spring snowmelt is occurring earlier and earlier. Studies imply that the changes in surface temperature that result from changes in snow cover are smaller than those caused by altered sea ice coverage, but are more extensive and prominent in autumn and spring.<\/p>\n<\/div><\/div><\/div><\/section>\n<section class='av_toggle_section av-ldabhmrz-a9680eafe6c93a33929010e30eac4d6e'  itemscope=\"itemscope\" itemtype=\"https:\/\/schema.org\/CreativeWork\" ><div role=\"tablist\" class=\"single_toggle\" data-tags=\"{All} \"  ><p id='toggle-toggle-id-8' data-fake-id='#toggle-id-8' class='toggler  av-title-above '  itemprop=\"headline\"  role='tab' tabindex='0' aria-controls='toggle-id-8' data-slide-speed=\"200\" data-title=\"Permafrost\" data-title-open=\"\" data-aria_collapsed=\"Click to expand: Permafrost\" data-aria_expanded=\"Click to collapse: Permafrost\">Permafrost<span class=\"toggle_icon\"><span class=\"vert_icon\"><\/span><span class=\"hor_icon\"><\/span><\/span><\/p><div id='toggle-id-8' aria-labelledby='toggle-toggle-id-8' role='region' class='toggle_wrap  av-title-above'  ><div class='toggle_content invers-color '  itemprop=\"text\" ><p>Permafrost&nbsp;lies under much of the land in the Arctic, and under the seabed in some places. Permafrost is important for global climate developments because huge amounts of greenhouse gases (mainly methane) lie \u201clocked\u201d inside the frozen ground and could be set free if the permafrost were to disappear. Permafrost is thawing at several locations in the Arctic, and its temperature is now 2\u00b0C warmer than it was 20-30 years ago. A monitoring series reported through <span class=\"explain-enabled\" data-hoverbox=\"&lt;strong&gt;MOSJ&lt;\/strong&gt;&nbsp;Environmental monotoring of Svalbard and Jan Mayen.\" data-hasqtip=\"30\">MOSJ<\/span>, shows&nbsp;<a href=\"https:\/\/mosj.no\/en\/indikator\/climate\/land\/permafrost\/\">thawing also in Svalbard<\/a>. So far, however, it has been difficult to calculate the potential magnitude of greenhouse gas emissions from thawing permafrost, because many of the interlinked consequences of such thawing remain poorly understood.&nbsp;The most recent IPCC&nbsp;summary of available knowledge and evidence shows that the best estimate for 2100 is between 50 and 250 gigatonnes of carbon, depending on how global temperature evolves.<\/p>\n<\/div><\/div><\/div><\/section>\n<section class='av_toggle_section av-av_toggle-65de81d39369a66236b60ceb21deab9c'  itemscope=\"itemscope\" itemtype=\"https:\/\/schema.org\/CreativeWork\" ><div role=\"tablist\" class=\"single_toggle\" data-tags=\"{All} \"  ><p id='toggle-toggle-id-9' data-fake-id='#toggle-id-9' class='toggler  av-title-above '  itemprop=\"headline\"  role='tab' tabindex='0' aria-controls='toggle-id-9' data-slide-speed=\"200\" data-title=\"Glaciers and ice sheets\" data-title-open=\"\" data-aria_collapsed=\"Click to expand: Glaciers and ice sheets\" data-aria_expanded=\"Click to collapse: Glaciers and ice sheets\">Glaciers and ice sheets<span class=\"toggle_icon\"><span class=\"vert_icon\"><\/span><span class=\"hor_icon\"><\/span><\/span><\/p><div id='toggle-id-9' aria-labelledby='toggle-toggle-id-9' role='region' class='toggle_wrap  av-title-above'  ><div class='toggle_content invers-color '  itemprop=\"text\" ><p>Glaciers and ice sheets&nbsp;in polar regions influence the climate system in several ways. They too affect radiation balance through the <span class=\"explain-enabled\" data-hoverbox=\"&lt;strong&gt;Albedo&nbsp;&lt;\/strong&gt;is a measure of a surface\u2019s ability to reflect sunlight.\" data-hasqtip=\"32\"><span class='NP-tooltip  '\n    data-tippy='<strong>Albedo&nbsp;<\/strong>is a measure of a surface\u2019s ability to reflect sunlight.'\n    data-tippy-arrow='true'\n    data-tippy-delay='[null,400]'\n    data-tippy-interactive='true'\n    data-tippy-trigger='mouseenter focus click'\n    >albedo effect<sup class='NP-tooltipmark'>?<\/sup><\/span> <\/span>, just as sea ice and snow do, but they also have impact on influx of fresh water to the world\u2019s oceans, and thus affect ocean circulation. Almost all the glaciers and ice caps in the Arctic have decreased in volume over the last century; Alaska and northern Canada are the regions that have seen the greatest loss of glacier mass in the past decade. Parallel with this, reduced seawater salinity and density have been observed. It has been estimated that the influx of fresh water (from all sources) has increased by 7700 km<sup>3<\/sup> over the past few years. If this trend continues, there is a risk of changes in major ocean currents, which would in turn have impact on global climate.<\/p>\n<section class=\"av_textblock_section\"  itemscope=\"itemscope\" itemtype=\"https:\/\/schema.org\/CreativeWork\" ><div role='complementary' class='avia_textblock NP-factsheet-enfold alwaysToggle '   itemprop=\"text\" ><p class='title'>The Norwegian Polar Institute\u2019s research on glaciers<\/p><div class='hsep'><\/div><div class='NP-factsheet-content'><\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox-content\">\n<p>Research done by the Norwegian Polar Institute contributes toward increased knowledge about the role&nbsp;Svalbard&#8217;s glaciers&nbsp;play in the climate system. One topic of study is glacier&nbsp;mass balance&nbsp;\u2013 whether glaciers are growing or shrinking overall \u2013 and thus what impact they may have on the sea level.<\/p>\n<p>Old ice layers in glaciers can also be used as climate archives and as indicators of the distribution of environmental toxins. Read more about <a href=\"https:\/\/npolar.no\/en\/research\/\" target=\"_self\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">glaciological research<\/a>.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p><\/div><\/div><div tabindex=\"0\" role=\"button\" class=\"NP-factToggle\" style=\"text-align:center;\"><i class=\"fas fa-angle-down fa-2x\"><\/i><\/div><\/section>\n<\/div><\/div><\/div><\/section>\n<\/div>\n<\/div><\/div><\/div><!-- close content main div --><\/div><\/div><div id='av_section_1'  class='avia-section av-jibooaux-f7e76fb01fb442c85e29c3d3b7741166 alternate_color avia-section-default avia-no-border-styling avia-bg-style-scroll container_wrap fullsize'  ><div class='container av-section-cont-open' ><div class='template-page content  av-content-full alpha units'><div class='post-entry post-entry-type-page post-entry-15411'><div class='entry-content-wrapper clearfix'>\n\n<style type=\"text\/css\" data-created_by=\"avia_inline_auto\" id=\"style-css-av-jibnl0mq-72b4b3ec5566980dd3b323cc76314895\">\n.flex_column.av-jibnl0mq-72b4b3ec5566980dd3b323cc76314895{\nborder-radius:0px 0px 0px 0px;\npadding:0px 0px 0px 0px;\n}\n<\/style>\n<div  class='flex_column av-jibnl0mq-72b4b3ec5566980dd3b323cc76314895 av_one_full  NP-tabs first flex_column_div av-zero-column-padding  '     ><div  class='togglecontainer av-ld8swhsn-87ed4471f4ee975d3f02837ad7690da8 av-minimal-toggle toggle_close_all' >\n<section class='av_toggle_section av-ld8swgpi-481e5b6defdd1c058ab4b90951ce5ba5'  itemscope=\"itemscope\" itemtype=\"https:\/\/schema.org\/CreativeWork\" ><div role=\"tablist\" class=\"single_toggle\" data-tags=\"{All} \"  ><p id='toggle-toggle-id-10' data-fake-id='#toggle-id-10' class='toggler  av-title-above '  itemprop=\"headline\"  role='tab' tabindex='0' aria-controls='toggle-id-10' data-slide-speed=\"200\" data-title=\"Related pages\" data-title-open=\"\" data-aria_collapsed=\"Click to expand: Related pages\" data-aria_expanded=\"Click to collapse: Related pages\">Related pages<span class=\"toggle_icon\"><span class=\"vert_icon\"><\/span><span class=\"hor_icon\"><\/span><\/span><\/p><div id='toggle-id-10' aria-labelledby='toggle-toggle-id-10' role='region' class='toggle_wrap  av-title-above'  ><div class='toggle_content invers-color '  itemprop=\"text\" ><div class=\"NP-factsheet-content\"><a href=\"https:\/\/npolar.no\/en\/themes\/climate-change-in-the-arctic\/\">Climate change in the Arctic<\/a><\/div>\n<div><a href=\"https:\/\/npolar.no\/en\/themes\/climate-change-in-antarctica\/\">Climate change in Antarctica<\/a><\/div>\n<div>&nbsp;<\/div>\n<\/div><\/div><\/div><\/section>\n<section class='av_toggle_section av-ld8sx4k0-bd2ecacec287f0b1c5bef9abe3905c09'  itemscope=\"itemscope\" itemtype=\"https:\/\/schema.org\/CreativeWork\" ><div role=\"tablist\" class=\"single_toggle\" data-tags=\"{All} \"  ><p id='toggle-toggle-id-11' data-fake-id='#toggle-id-11' class='toggler  av-title-above '  itemprop=\"headline\"  role='tab' tabindex='0' aria-controls='toggle-id-11' data-slide-speed=\"200\" data-title=\"External links\" data-title-open=\"\" data-aria_collapsed=\"Click to expand: External links\" data-aria_expanded=\"Click to collapse: External links\">External links<span class=\"toggle_icon\"><span class=\"vert_icon\"><\/span><span class=\"hor_icon\"><\/span><\/span><\/p><div id='toggle-id-11' aria-labelledby='toggle-toggle-id-11' role='region' class='toggle_wrap  av-title-above'  ><div class='toggle_content invers-color '  itemprop=\"text\" ><p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.miljostatus.no\/Tema\/Klima\/Drivhuseffekten\/\">Greenhouse effect (miljostatus.no)<\/a><\/p>\n<\/div><\/div><\/div><\/section>\n<\/div><\/div>\n\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>What happens in the global climate is mainly determined by a few fundamental processes: incoming solar radiation, characteristics of the earth\u2019s surface, the atmosphere\u2019s ability  to retain heat, and the reflectivity of the atmosphere and the earth\u2019s surface. Various mechanisms serve to enhance or weaken the effects of these processes on climate.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":2,"featured_media":15376,"parent":3607,"menu_order":19,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"_acf_changed":false,"footnotes":""},"tags":[],"emne":[],"class_list":["post-15411","page","type-page","status-publish","has-post-thumbnail","hentry"],"acf":[],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/npolar.no\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/15411","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/npolar.no\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/npolar.no\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/npolar.no\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/2"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/npolar.no\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=15411"}],"version-history":[{"count":5,"href":"https:\/\/npolar.no\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/15411\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":38106,"href":"https:\/\/npolar.no\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/15411\/revisions\/38106"}],"up":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/npolar.no\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/3607"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/npolar.no\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/15376"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/npolar.no\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=15411"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/npolar.no\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=15411"},{"taxonomy":"emne","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/npolar.no\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/emne?post=15411"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}